Out of Asia? Expansion of Eurasian Lyme borreliosis causing genospecies display unique evolutionary trajectories.

Vector-borne pathogens exist in obligate transmission cycles between vector and reservoir host species. Host and vector shifts can lead to geographic expansion of infectious agents and the emergence of new diseases in susceptible individuals. Three bacterial genospecies (Borrelia afzelii, Borrelia bavariensis, and Borrelia garinii) predominantly utilize two distinct tick species as vectors in Asia (Ixodes persulcatus) and Europe (Ixodes ricinus). Through these vectors, the bacteria can infect various vertebrate groups (e.g., rodents, birds) including humans where they cause Lyme borreliosis, the most common vector-borne disease in the Northern hemisphere. Yet, how and in which order the three Borrelia genospecies colonized each continent remains unclear including the evolutionary consequences of this geographic expansion. Here, by reconstructing the evolutionary history of 142 Eurasian isolates, we found evidence that the ancestors of each of the three genospecies probably have an Asian origin. Even so, each genospecies studied displayed a unique substructuring and evolutionary response to the colonization of Europe. The pattern of allele sharing between continents is consistent with the dispersal rate of the respective vertebrate hosts, supporting the concept that adaptation of Borrelia genospecies to the host is important for pathogen dispersal. Our results highlight that Eurasian Lyme borreliosis agents are all capable of geographic expansion with host association influencing their dispersal; further displaying the importance of host and vector association to the geographic expansion of vector-borne pathogens and potentially conditioning their capacity as emergent pathogens.

Physiology can predict animal activity, exploration, and dispersal.

Physiology can underlie movement, including short-term activity, exploration of unfamiliar environments, and larger scale dispersal, and thereby influence species distributions in an environmentally sensitive manner. We conducted meta-analyses of the literature to establish, firstly, whether physiological traits underlie activity, exploration, and dispersal by individuals (88 studies), and secondly whether physiological characteristics differed between range core and edges of distributions (43 studies). We show that locomotor performance and metabolism influenced individual movement with varying levels of confidence. Range edges differed from cores in traits that may be associated with dispersal success, including metabolism, locomotor performance, corticosterone levels, and immunity, and differences increased with increasing time since separation. Physiological effects were particularly pronounced in birds and amphibians, but taxon-specific differences may reflect biased sampling in the literature, which also focussed primarily on North America, Europe, and Australia. Hence, physiology can influence movement, but undersampling and bias currently limits general conclusions.

Behavioural traits of rainbow trout and brown trout may help explain their differing invasion success and impacts.

Animal behaviour is increasingly recognised as critical to the prediction of non-native species success and impacts. Rainbow trout and brown trout have been introduced globally, but there appear to be differences in their patterns of invasiveness and ecological impact. Here, we investigated whether diploid rainbow trout and diploid and triploid brown trout differ among several key behavioural measures linked to invasiveness and impact. We assessed activity, boldness, aggression, and feeding, using open field, novel object, shelter, mirror, feeding, and functional response experiments. We also tested within each fish type for behavioural syndromes comprising correlations among activity, boldness and aggression. Rainbow trout were more active and aggressive but less bold than diploid and triploid brown trout. In small groups, however, rainbow trout were bolder than both types of brown trout. Diploid brown trout were more active and bolder than triploids when tested individually, and had a higher functional response than both rainbow trout and triploid brown trout. In terms of behavioural syndromes, there was no association between activity and boldness in rainbow trout, however, there was in both brown trout types. The increased activity and aggression of rainbow trout may reflect an increased stress response to novel situations, with this response reduced in a group. These results suggest that rainbow trout do not manage their energy budgets effectively, and may explain why they have limited survival as invaders. In addition, the lower functional response of rainbow trout may explain why they are implicated in fewer ecological impacts, and the triploidy treatment also appears to lower the potential impact of brown trout. Comparative analyses of multiple behaviours of invasive species and genetic variants may thus be key to understanding and predicting invader success and ecological impacts.

Personality, density and habitat drive the dispersal of invasive crayfish.

There is increasing evidence that personality traits may drive dispersal patterns of animals, including invasive species. We investigated, using the widespread signal crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus as a model invasive species, whether effects of personality traits on dispersal were independent of, or affected by, other factors including population density, habitat, crayfish size, sex and limb loss, along an invasion gradient. Behavioural traits (boldness, activity, exploration, willingness to climb) of 310 individually marked signal crayfish were measured at fully-established, newly-established and invasion front sites of two upland streams. After a period at liberty, recaptured crayfish were reassessed for behavioural traits (newly-established, invasion front). Dispersal distance and direction of crayfish movement, local population density, fine-scale habitat characteristics and crayfish size, sex and limb loss were also measured. Individual crayfish exhibited consistency in behavioural traits over time which formed a behavioural syndrome. Dispersal was both positively and negatively affected by personality traits, positively by local population density and negatively by refuge availability. No effect of size, sex and limb loss was recorded. Personality played a role in promoting dispersal but population density and local habitat complexity were also important determinants. Predicting biological invasion in animals is likely to require better integration of these processes.

Geographic range, distribution patterns and interactions of Monogenea Van Beneden 1858, with species of native host freshwater fishes from Brazil / Distribuição geográfica, padrões de distribuição e interações de Monogenea Van Beneden 1858, com espécies de peixes hospedeiros nativos de água doce do Brasil

Abstract This paper investigated information on monogenean species using 312 scientific papers, to search for infection and geographic distribution patterns in native freshwater fish from Brazil. We used 1,698 samples of 296 fish species of 28 families distributed into Characiformes, Siluriformes, Cichliformes, Gymnotiformes, Perciformes, Mugiliformes, Osteoglossiformes and Clupeiformes, in addition to four hybrid fish. Among the hosts of the different orders and families, the greatest numbers of parasite-host associations were found for species of the families Serrasalmidae, Characidae, Loricariidae, Curimatidae and Anostomidae. The 578 species of monogeneans used in parasite-host interactions were distributed in 86 genera of six five families (Dactylogyridae, Gyrodactylidae, Diplectanidae, Microcotylidae, Ancylodiscoididae and Ancyrocephalidae), but with great predominance of Dactylogyridae species. There was variation in prevalence, intensity and abundance levels of monogeneans species among host fish species, as well as in infection sites that occurred predominantly in external organs. Positive correlations of prevalence, intensity and abundance with body length of hosts were observed. There was geographic distribution pattern of monogeneans limited mostly to two hydrographic basins those being the Amazon River and Paraná River. Just approximately 6% of potential monogeneans have been explored thus far, showing a clear need for further studies on this interesting group of parasites.

Resumo Este estudo investigou informações sobre espécies de monogenéticos, usando 312 artigos científicos para buscar padrões de infecção e distribuição geográfica em peixes nativos de água doce do Brasil. Foram utilizadas 1.698 amostras de 296 espécies de peixes de 28 famílias, distribuídas em Characiformes, Siluriformes, Cichliformes, Gymnotiformes, Perciformes, Mugiliformes, Osteoglossiformes e Clupeiformes, além de quatro peixes híbridos. Entre os hospedeiros das diferentes ordens e famílias, os maiores números de associações parasito-hospedeiro foram encontrados para espécies das famílias Serrasalmidae, Characidae, Loricariidae, Curimatidae e Anostomidae. As 578 espécies de monogenéticos, utilizadas nas interações parasito-hospedeiro, foram distribuídas em 86 gêneros de seis famílias (Dactylogyridae, Gyrodactylidae, Diplectanidae, Microcotylidae, Ancylodiscoididae e Ancyrocephalidae), mas com grande predominância de espécie de Dactylogyridae. Houve variação nos níveis de prevalência, intensidade e abundância das espécies de monogenéticos entre as espécies de peixes hospedeiros, bem como nos locais de infecção que ocorreram predominantemente em órgãos externos. Correlações positivas de prevalência, intensidade e abundância com o comprimento corporal dos hospedeiros foram observadas. Houve padrão de distribuição geográfica dos monogenéticos limitados principalmente a duas bacias hidrográficas, sendo elas o Rio Amazonas e Rio Paraná. Apenas aproximadamente 6% dos potenciais monogenéticos são conhecidos até agora, mostrando uma clara necessidade de mais estudos sobre esse interessante grupo de parasitos.

Increased rates of dispersal of free-ranging cane toads (Rhinella marina) during their global invasion.

Invasions often accelerate through time, as dispersal-enhancing traits accumulate at the expanding range edge. How does the dispersal behaviour of individual organisms shift to increase rates of population spread? We collate data from 44 radio-tracking studies (in total, of 650 animals) of cane toads (Rhinella marina) to quantify distances moved per day, and the frequency of displacement in their native range (French Guiana) and two invaded areas (Hawai'i and Australia). We show that toads in their native-range, Hawai'i and eastern Australia are relatively sedentary, while toads dispersing across tropical Australia increased their daily distances travelled from 20 to 200 m per day. That increase reflects an increasing propensity to change diurnal retreat sites every day, as well as to move further during each nocturnal displacement. Daily changes in retreat site evolved earlier than did changes in distances moved per night, indicating a breakdown in philopatry before other movement behaviours were optimised to maximise dispersal.

A first assessment of the distribution and abundance of large pelagic species at Cocos Ridge seamounts (Eastern Tropical Pacific) using drifting pelagic baited remote cameras.

Understanding the link between seamounts and large pelagic species (LPS) may provide important insights for the conservation of these species in open water ecosystems. The seamounts along the Cocos Ridge in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) ocean are thought to be ecologically important aggregation sites for LPS when moving between Cocos Island (Costa Rica) and Galapagos Islands (Ecuador). However, to date, research efforts to quantify the abundance and distribution patterns of LPS beyond the borders of these two oceanic Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been limited. This study used drifting-pelagic baited remote underwater video stations (BRUVS) to investigate the distribution and relative abundance of LPS at Cocos Ridge seamounts. Our drifting-pelagic BRUVS recorded a total of 21 species including elasmobranchs, small and large teleosts, dolphins and one sea turtle; of which four species are currently threatened. Depth of seamount summit was the most significant driver for LPS richness and abundance which were significantly higher at shallow seamounts (< 400 m) compared to deeper ones (> 400m). Distance to nearest MPA was also a significant predictor for LPS abundance, which increased at increasing distances from the nearest MPA. Our results suggest that the Cocos Ridge seamounts, specifically Paramount and West Cocos which had the highest LPS richness and abundance, are important aggregation sites for LPS in the ETP. However, further research is still needed to demonstrate a positive association between LPS and Cocos Ridge seamounts. Our findings showed that drifting pelagic BRUVS are an effective tool to survey LPS in fully pelagic ecosystems of the ETP. This study represents the first step towards the standardization of this technique throughout the region.

Exogenous corticosterone and melanin-based coloration explain variation in juvenile dispersal behaviour in the barn owl (Tyto alba).

Natal dispersal affects many processes such as population dynamics. So far, most studies have examined the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that determine the distance between the place of birth and of first breeding. In contrast, few researchers followed the first steps of dispersal soon after fledging. To study this gap, we radio-tracked 95 barn owl nestlings (Tyto alba) to locate their diurnal roost sites from the fledging stage until December. This was used to test whether the age of nest departure, post-fledging movements and dispersal distance were related to melanin-based coloration, which is correlated to fitness-related traits, as well as to corticosterone, a hormone that mediates a number of life history trade-offs and the physiological and behavioural responses to stressful situations. We found that the artificial administration of corticosterone delayed the age when juveniles left their parental home-range in females but not in males. During the first few months after fledging, longer dispersal distances were reached by females compared to males, by individuals marked with larger black feather spots compared to individuals with smaller spots, by larger individuals and by those experimentally treated with corticosterone. We conclude that the onset and magnitude of dispersal is sensitive to the stress hormone corticosterone, melanin-based coloration and body size.

New records and modelling the impacts of climate change on the black-tailed marmosets.

Climate change represents an unprecedented threat to global biodiversity and, for many species, gaps in our knowledge of their biology remain acute. Gaps in baseline knowledge, such as confirmed identifications (Linnean shortfalls) and adequate collections (Wallacean shortfalls), need to be minimized with new studies, since this is often critical for effective conservation. Despite the increase in scientific research on primates in the southwest of the Brazilian Amazon, little is known about the species Mico nigriceps (Ferrari & Lopes, 1992) Primates, Platirryni. In the current study, we sought to reduce the extent of the Wallacean shortfall for M. nigriceps, understand whether climate change represents a threat to the distribution of the species, and identify priority areas for its conservation. Accordingly, we provide 121 new records in 14 locations, obtained directly from the field, and five from the literature. Using this, we carried out ecological niche modeling, to better understand how environmental suitability might limit the area occupied by the species. We then projected a distribution for 2070 with the SSP2-4.5 (more optimistic) and SSP5-8.5 (more pessimistic) scenarios. Our data confirmed the geographic distribution of the species as being restricted to headwaters of the Ji-Paraná/Machado river, but with a 400 km extension to the south. Under the modeled climate change scenarios, the area suitable for the species declines by 21% under the most optimistic, and by 27% in the pessimistic, scenario across the projected 50-year period. Although we have expanded the area of known occurrence for this species, we point out that climate change threatens the stability of this newly-discovered population strongly, and that this danger is intensified by deforestation, fire and hunting. We recommend that further studies be carried out to confirm the presence of the species in adjacent areas, those indicated by generated models as being potential environmentally suitable. In addition, we recommend intensifying forest restoration in currently pastured areas, and protection of the areas forming the current and future habitat of this species through such measures as protected area creation.

Evolution and dispersal of snakes across the Cretaceous-Paleogene mass extinction.

Mass extinctions have repeatedly shaped global biodiversity. The Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) mass extinction caused the demise of numerous vertebrate groups, and its aftermath saw the rapid diversification of surviving mammals, birds, frogs, and teleost fishes. However, the effects of the K-Pg extinction on the evolution of snakes-a major clade of predators comprising over 3,700 living species-remains poorly understood. Here, we combine an extensive molecular dataset with phylogenetically and stratigraphically constrained fossil calibrations to infer an evolutionary timescale for Serpentes. We reveal a potential diversification among crown snakes associated with the K-Pg mass extinction, led by the successful colonisation of Asia by the major extant clade Afrophidia. Vertebral morphometrics suggest increasing morphological specialisation among marine snakes through the Paleogene. The dispersal patterns of snakes following the K-Pg underscore the importance of this mass extinction event in shaping Earth's extant vertebrate faunas.

High site-fidelity in common bottlenose dolphins despite low salinity exposure and associated indicators of compromised health.

More than 2,000 common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) inhabit the Barataria Bay Estuarine System in Louisiana, USA, a highly productive estuary with variable salinity driven by natural and man-made processes. It was unclear whether dolphins that are long-term residents to specific areas within the basin move in response to fluctuations in salinity, which at times can decline to 0 parts per thousand in portions of the basin. In June 2017, we conducted health assessments and deployed satellite telemetry tags on dolphins in the northern portions of the Barataria Bay Estuarine System Stock area (9 females; 4 males). We analyzed their fine-scale movements relative to modeled salinity trends compared to dolphins tagged near the barrier islands (higher salinity environments) from 2011 to 2017 (37 females; 21 males). Even though we observed different movement patterns among individual dolphins, we found no evidence that tagged dolphins moved coincident with changes in salinity. One tagged dolphin spent at least 35 consecutive days, and 75 days in total, in salinity under 5 parts per thousand. Health assessments took place early in a seasonal period of decreased salinity. Nonetheless, we found an increased prevalence of skin lesions, as well as abnormalities in serum biochemical markers and urine:serum osmolality ratios for dolphins sampled in lower salinity areas. This study provides essential information on the likely behavioral responses of dolphins to changes in salinity (e.g., severe storms or from the proposed Mid-Barataria Sediment Diversion project) and on physiological markers to inform the timing and severity of impacts from low salinity exposure.

Specialization directs habitat selection responses to a top predator in semiaquatic but not aquatic taxa.

Habitat selectivity has become an increasingly acknowledged mechanism shaping the structure of freshwater communities; however, most studies have focused on the effect of predators and competitors, neglecting habitat complexity and specialization. In this study, we examined the habitat selection of semiaquatic (amphibians: Bufonidae; odonates: Libellulidae) and aquatic organisms (true bugs: Notonectidae; diving beetles: Dytiscidae). From each family, we selected one habitat generalist species able to coexist with fish (Bufo bufo, Sympetrum sanguineum, Notonecta glauca, Dytiscus marginalis) and one species specialized in fishless habitats (Bufotes viridis, Sympetrum danae, Notonecta obliqua, Acilius sulcatus). In a mesocosm experiment, we quantified habitat selection decisions in response to the non-consumptive presence of fish (Carassius auratus) and vegetation structure mimicking different successional stages of aquatic habitats (no macrophytes; submerged and floating macrophytes; submerged, floating, and littoral-emergent macrophytes). No congruence between habitat specialists and generalists was observed, but a similar response to fish and vegetation structure defined both semiaquatic and aquatic organisms. While semiaquatic generalists did not distinguish between fish and fishless pools, specialists avoided fish-occupied pools and had a preferred vegetation structure. In aquatic taxa, predator presence affected habitat selection only in combination with vegetation structure, and all species preferred fishless pools with floating and submerged macrophytes. Fish presence triggered avoidance only in the generalist bug N. glauca. Our results highlight the significance of habitat selectivity for structuring freshwater ecosystems and illustrate how habitat selection responses to a top predator are dictated by specialization and life history.

Towards a better characterisation of deep-diving whales' distributions by using prey distribution model outputs?

In habitat modelling, environmental variables are assumed to be proxies of lower trophic levels distribution and by extension, of marine top predator distributions. More proximal variables, such as potential prey fields, could refine relationships between top predator distributions and their environment. In situ data on prey distributions are not available over large spatial scales but, a numerical model, the Spatial Ecosystem And POpulation DYnamics Model (SEAPODYM), provides simulations of the biomass and production of zooplankton and six functional groups of micronekton at the global scale. Here, we explored whether generalised additive models fitted to simulated prey distribution data better predicted deep-diver densities (here beaked whales Ziphiidae and sperm whales Physeter macrocephalus) than models fitted to environmental variables. We assessed whether the combination of environmental and prey distribution data would further improve model fit by comparing their explanatory power. For both taxa, results were suggestive of a preference for habitats associated with topographic features and thermal fronts but also for habitats with an extended euphotic zone and with large prey of the lower mesopelagic layer. For beaked whales, no SEAPODYM variable was selected in the best model that combined the two types of variables, possibly because SEAPODYM does not accurately simulate the organisms on which beaked whales feed on. For sperm whales, the increase model performance was only marginal. SEAPODYM outputs were at best weakly correlated with sightings of deep-diving cetaceans, suggesting SEAPODYM may not accurately predict the prey fields of these taxa. This study was a first investigation and mostly highlighted the importance of the physiographic variables to understand mechanisms that influence the distribution of deep-diving cetaceans. A more systematic use of SEAPODYM could allow to better define the limits of its use and a development of the model that would simulate larger prey beyond 1,000 m would probably better characterise the prey of deep-diving cetaceans.

Habitat monitoring and conservation prioritization of Western Hoolock Gibbon in upper Brahmaputra Valley, Assam, India.

The present study aimed at predicting the potential habitat of Western Hoolock Gibbon (Hoolock hoolock) in the upper Brahmaputra River Valley, Assam, India, and identifying priority conservation areas for the species, taking canopy cover into account. We used the maximum entropy algorithm for the prediction of the potential habitat of the gibbon using its current distribution with 19 environmental parameters as primary predictors. Spatio-temporal analyses of the habitat were carried out using satellite-based remote sensing and GIS techniques for two decades (1998-2018) along with Terra Modis Vegetation Continuous Field product to examine land use land cover (LULC), habitat fragmentation, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and tree cover percentage of the study area. To identify the conservation priority area, we applied a cost-effective decision-making analysis using systematic conservation prioritization in R programming. The model predicted an area of 6025 km2 under high potential habitat, a major part of which was found to overlap with dense forest (80%), followed by moderately open forest (74%) and open forest (66%). The LULC change matrix showed a reduction of forest area in the predicted high potential habitat during the study period, while agricultural class showed an increasing trend. The fragmentation analysis indicated that the number of patches and patch density increased from 2008 to 2018 in the 'very dense' and 'dense' canopy regions of the gibbon habitat. Based on the conservation priority analysis, a 640 km2 area has been proposed to conserve a minimum of 10% of gibbon habitat. The current analysis revealed that in the upper Brahmaputra Valley most areas under dense forest and dense canopy have remained intact over the last two decades, at least within the high potential habitat zone of gibbons independent of the degree of area change in forest, agriculture and plantation.

Year-round at-sea distribution and trophic resources partitioning between two sympatric Sulids in the tropical Atlantic.

In the oligotrophic tropical marine environment resources are usually more patchily distributed and less abundant to top predators. Thus, spatial and trophic competition can emerge, especially between related seabird species belonging to the same ecological guild. Here we studied the foraging ecology of two sympatric species-brown booby (BRBO) Sula leucogaster (breeding) and red-footed boobies (RFBO) Sula sula (non-breeding)-at Raso islet (Cabo Verde), across different seasons. Sexual segregation was only observed during Jun-Oct, when RFBO were present, with larger females BRBO remaining closer to the colonies, while males and RFBO travelled further and exploited different habitats. Overall, species appeared to prefer areas with specific oceanic features, particularly those related with oceanic currents and responsible for enhancing primary productivity in tropical oceanic areas (e.g. Sea Surface Height and Ocean Mixed Layer Thickness). Female BRBOs showed high foraging-site fidelity during the period of sympatry, while exploiting the same prey species as the other birds. However, during the months of co-existence (Jun.-Oct.), isotopic mixing models suggested that female BRBO would consume a higher proportion of epipelagic fish, whereas female RFBO would consume more squid compared to the other birds, possibly due to habitat-specific prey availability and breeding energy-constraints for BRBO. We conclude that divergent parental roles, environmental conditions, habitat preference and competition could be mechanisms simultaneously underlying sexual segregation for BRBO during a period of co-existence, while inter-specific foraging differences appear to be more affected by habitat preference and different breeding stages. These results support previous statements that BRBO can adapt their foraging ecology to different circumstances of environmental conditions and competition, and that marine physical features play an important role in foraging decisions of boobies.

Global abundance estimates for 9,700 bird species.

Quantifying the abundance of species is essential to ecology, evolution, and conservation. The distribution of species abundances is fundamental to numerous longstanding questions in ecology, yet the empirical pattern at the global scale remains unresolved, with a few species' abundance well known but most poorly characterized. In large part because of heterogeneous data, few methods exist that can scale up to all species across the globe. Here, we integrate data from a suite of well-studied species with a global dataset of bird occurrences throughout the world-for 9,700 species (∼92% of all extant species)-and use missing data theory to estimate species-specific abundances with associated uncertainty. We find strong evidence that the distribution of species abundances is log left skewed: there are many rare species and comparatively few common species. By aggregating the species-level estimates, we find that there are ∼50 billion individual birds in the world at present. The global-scale abundance estimates that we provide will allow for a line of inquiry into the structure of abundance across biogeographic realms and feeding guilds as well as the consequences of life history (e.g., body size, range size) on population dynamics. Importantly, our method is repeatable and scalable: as data quantity and quality increase, our accuracy in tracking temporal changes in global biodiversity will increase. Moreover, we provide the methodological blueprint for quantifying species-specific abundance, along with uncertainty, for any organism in the world.

Potential trade-offs between reproduction and migratory flight in Spodoptera frugiperda.

Since 2016, the fall armyworm (FAW, Spodoptera frugiperda) has invaded large parts of Africa and Asia, impacting millions of hectares of maize crops and thereby posing a major threat to food security. The rapid geographic spread and outbreak dynamics of S. frugiperda are tied to its unique dispersal ability and long-distance migration capability. Yet, up till present, limited research has been conducted on the physiological determinants of S. frugiperda flight and migration. In this study, we used laboratory experiments to assess whether mating and oviposition affect S. frugiperda flight ability and wingbeat frequency. During 2019-2020, migratory FAW females were trapped in Yunnan (China) and dissected to assess ovarian development. Tethered flight assays showed that gravid S. frugiperda females exhibited strong flight ability at 1-3 days following the onset of oviposition. Flight distance and duration negatively correlated with the number of deposited eggs. Ovarian dissections further showed that over 50% of migrant females were mated and 46-54% had initiated oviposition. Our study shows the complex, yet nuanced effects of reproductive status on flight capacity, with possibly a facultative trade-off between flight and reproduction. These novel insights into S. frugiperda physiology and migration behavior can guide future monitoring and integrated pest management (IPM) programs against this newly-invasive pest in China and abroad.

Size matters! The largest wild stump-tailed macaque Macaca arctoides troop ever reported, located in the Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary, northeastern India.

Very large and stable, socially coherent primate groups, not including fission-fusion societies, are usually rare in nature, owing to constraints imposed by various ecological and social factors. Moreover, unlike species in open habitats, those in forests tend to have smaller groups, and this becomes further accentuated in small and fragmented forest patches. We report here an unusually large troop of stump-tailed macaques Macaca arctoides from the Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary, a small and isolated lowland tropical rainforest patch in the Upper Brahmaputra Valley of northeastern India - this is possibly the largest wild group of the species recorded anywhere across its distribution range. We hypothesise the potential factors driving the formation of such a large social group of this vulnerable cercopithecine primate and discuss the conservation implications of this phenomenon.

Species diversity and spatial distribution of CL/VL vectors: assessing bioclimatic effect on expression plasticity of genes possessing vaccine properties isolated from wild-collected sand flies in endemic areas of Iran.

BACKGROUND: Leishmaniasis is one of the ten most important neglected tropical diseases worldwide. Understanding the distribution of vectors of visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis (VL/CL) is one of the significant strategic frameworks to control leishmaniasis. In this study, the extent of the bioclimatic variability was investigated to recognize a rigorous cartographic of the spatial distribution of VL/CL vectors as risk-maps using ArcGIS modeling system. Moreover, the effect of bioclimatic diversity on the fold change expression of genes possessing vaccine traits (SP15 and LeIF) was evaluated in each bioclimatic region using real-time PCR analysis. METHODS: The Inverse Distance Weighting interpolation method was used to obtain accurate geography map in closely-related distances. Bioclimatic indices were computed and vectors spatial distribution was analyzed in ArcGIS10.3.1 system. Species biodiversity was calculated based on Shannon diversity index using Rv.3.5.3. Expression fold change of SP15 and LeIF genes was evaluated using cDNA synthesis and RT-qPCR analysis. RESULTS: Frequency of Phlebotomus papatasi was predominant in plains areas of Mountainous bioclimate covering the CL hot spots. Mediterranean region was recognized as an important bioclimate harboring prevalent patterns of VL vectors. Semi-arid bioclimate was identified as a major contributing factor to up-regulate salivary-SP15 gene expression (P = 0.0050, P < 0.05). Also, Mediterranean bioclimate had considerable effect on up-regulation of Leishmania-LeIF gene in gravid and semi-gravid P. papatasi population (P = 0.0109, P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The diversity and spatial distribution of CL/VL vectors associated with bioclimatic regionalization obtained in our research provide epidemiological risk maps and establish more effectively control measures against leishmaniasis. Oscillations in gene expression indicate that each gene has its own features, which are profoundly affected by bioclimatic characteristics and physiological status of sand flies. Given the efficacy of species-specific antigens for vaccine production, it is essential to consider bioclimatic factors that have a fundamental role in affecting the regulatory regions of environmentally responsive loci for genes used in vaccine design.

A solution to a sex ratio puzzle in Melittobia wasps.

The puzzling sex ratio behavior of Melittobia wasps has long posed one of the greatest questions in the field of sex allocation. Laboratory experiments have found that, in contrast to the predictions of theory and the behavior of numerous other organisms, Melittobia females do not produce fewer female-biased offspring sex ratios when more females lay eggs on a patch. We solve this puzzle by showing that, in nature, females of Melittobia australica have a sophisticated sex ratio behavior, in which their strategy also depends on whether they have dispersed from the patch where they emerged. When females have not dispersed, they lay eggs with close relatives, which keeps local mate competition high even with multiple females, and therefore, they are selected to produce consistently female-biased sex ratios. Laboratory experiments mimic these conditions. In contrast, when females disperse, they interact with nonrelatives, and thus adjust their sex ratio depending on the number of females laying eggs. Consequently, females appear to use dispersal status as an indirect cue of relatedness and whether they should adjust their sex ratio in response to the number of females laying eggs on the patch.